>[!meta-dates] >- **Created:** 2025-06-26 >- **Last updated:** 2025-07-09 >- **Author:** TJ Trewin ## Overview >[!summary] >- It's theorised that supercratons were the **Archean eon's equivalent of supercontinents** from over **1.8 billion years ago**, though they weren't anywhere near as big. >- Supercratons are **stable landmasses** with a **keel** up to 400km thick that goes deep below the crust. >- They **likely formed with a different type of tectonics**, a precursor from before modern plate tectonics and the supercontinent cycle began. >- When mantle plumes rift a supercraton apart, **they break into fragments called cratons**. >- There are **55 Archean craton fragments today**, which can be **found across every continent**. >- These ancient blocks of crust **cover about ~34% of continental landmass** (~7% of the planet's surface). >- Matching features of cratons in different parts of the world have led to **numerous theories about their original formations and movements** over time. >- The **keels on cratons today are on average half as thick** as they were during the Archean eon due to erosion over hundreds of millions of years wearing them down. >- **Almost 100% of the world's diamonds are formed in craton keels** (the others come from meteor impacts or other means). >- **90% of the world's gold and platinum is mined from cratons**. Other valuable metals like copper, iron, silver, and nickel can be produced there too. >- Due to the limited available data, there are **many conflicting supercraton proposals**, making it a confusing and highly debated topic until more research can fill the gaps. >[!caption] >![[Pearson-and-Wittig_2008_Global-distribution-of-the-cratons_fair-use-policy.png|Map of the world at present day with shaded brown areas depicting well-defined cratons, and grey depicting exposed Archean crust.]] >**Figure 1:** Global distribution of cratons (regions of crust >2.5 Ga old). Grey areas indicate Archean age rocks. Brown areas represent other definable fragments of composite cratons, and black dotted lines mark well defined craton areas. Red dashed lines show the estimated extent of cratonic regions that merged together from Archaean blocks during the following Proterozoic eon. Blue dotted lines extended across oceanic areas show links between cratonic fragments that are thought to have once formed single cratonic blocks. >From Pearson and Wittig (2008) under the Geological Society of London fair use policy.[^19] >[!note] Worldbuilding considerations >Where might the remnants of the oldest continental crust be in your world? >The exposed Archean crust shown in grey on Fig. 1 has survived over 2.5 Ga of tectonic activity. What clues to the ancient history of your world (natural or otherwise) might be found here? ## Supercraton features A supercraton is an alternative hypothesis to the existence of a supercontinent from the Archean eon, over 2.5 Ga (billion years ago).[^16] They're defined as a large, stable landmass that forms several independently drifting [[Craton|cratons]] when split apart by magmatic activity.[^1] - Cratons are sturdy blocks of Precambrian lithosphere that have been stable for >1 Ga and have a deep (>150 km) keel. - Archean cratons are the oldest bits within these, and are thicker and >2.5 Ga old. Pearson et al (2012)[^27] describe Archean cratons as *nuclei*. - Composite cratons are large areas of Paleoproterozoic (2.5-1.6 Ga) or Mesoproterozoic (1.6-1.0 Ga) crust with an Archean nuclei inside of it. - Supercratons are made up of several composite cratons. Archean cratons can be found on every continent today[^15][^7] (see Fig. 1) and there are estimated to be ~35 well defined craton fragments preserved (and discovered so far),[^1] though a more recent study has now identified a total of 55 Archean cratons.[^27] | Type | Total landmass coverage[^27] | Total planetary coverage | Estimate area size total | | ------------------- | :--------------------------- | :----------------------- | :----------------------- | | Precambrian cratons | 63% | 18% | 91,818,000 km² | | Archean cratons\* | ~34% | ~7% | ~49,555,000 km² | \*The vast majority of Archean fragments (>2.5 Ga) are within Precambrian (>0.54 Ga) craton areas. - - - The following sections focus on features found in the oldest, Archean parts of cratons observable today. ### A really deep keel The deepest part of a supercraton, called a keel, is really stable and is much thicker than regular continental crust, reaching down into the lithosphere to depths of up to ~400-450 km.[^10] Once a supercraton breaks apart into smaller fragments, the craton keels may wear down significantly to ~150-250 km thickness from the basal erosion caused by mantle convection.[^10][^15] Keels are also referred to as cratonic roots, though their technical term is known as: a sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) as seen in Fig. 2 below. >[!caption] >![[Cawood_++_2022__cross-section-of-lithosphere__wikimedia-commons-CC-BY-4.0.jpg|Cross section diagram of continental lithosphere displaying different overall thickness characteristics of Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic crust and lithospheric mantle.]] >**Figure 2:** Idealized cross section of continental lithosphere. >Abbreviation: cb, cratonic basin; LIP, large igneous province; MOR, mid-ocean ridge. >From Cawood et al (2022) via [Wikimedia Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lithosphere_of_Earth_-_Idealized_Cross-section.jpg) under the [CC-BY 4.0 licence](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ### Shields and platforms A shield is an exposed rocky surface part of a craton featuring metamorphic rocks like granitic gneisses (which are huge sources of granite for building materials) and greenstone belts. As seen in Fig. 2 - the shield is on the surface above the craton keel. Platforms cover younger areas of a craton and are typically filled with sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, or shale. Here are three different examples to explore: 1. The cold, snowy Anabar and Aldan Shields, part of the [Central Siberian Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Siberian_Plateau) in Russia, featuring the picturesque [Anabar Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabar_Plateau). ![[Putorana-plateau-siberia__wikimedia-commons_CC-BY-SA-3.0.jpg|Snowy landscape of Putorana Plateau in central Siberia.]] 2. The [Canadian Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Shield) with countless lakes and exposed outcrops of bedrock eroded by glacers, and surrounded by taiga woodland. ![[Canadian-shield__wikimedia-commons_CC-BY-SA-4.0.jpg|View overlooking Killarney Lake in the Canadian shield, with exposed outcrops of bedrock among taiga woodland.]] 3. The [Guiana Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiana_Shield) in tropical Venezuela, South America including the iconic [Serranía de Chiribiquete Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serran%C3%ADa_de_Chiribiquete). This region has near-flat topped mountains called [tepuis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepui) and is home to the tallest waterfall in the world, Angel Falls. ![[Mount-Roraima__wikimedia-commons_CC-BY-SA-3.0.jpg|Mount Roraima in Canaima National Park, surrounded by tropical woodland of Venezuela.]] <small>(Images from Ольга Чумаченко (1), Jason Wong (2), and Jeissy Trompiz (3) via Wikimedia Commons under Creative Commons licenses.)</small> >[!note] Worldbuilding considerations >Shields, platforms, and plateaus aren't strictly exclusive to certain climates or biomes, so don't feel that shields in your world have to be in a certain place! >Due to their complex and rugged geology, it's unlikely for large populations to sprawl across them unless they can sustainably support themselves with crops, livestock, or other means. > >What might be found in these areas in your world? Have smaller groups managed to settle there? Perhaps it's also home to hidden mysteries, undisturbed creatures, and natural wonders waiting to be discovered... ### Diamonds Diamond-rich kimberlite deposits form at depths of 150-200 km[^22] within the deepest part of a craton when there's a prolonged period of pulsing thermal or tectonic activity during the formation of its keel. Eruptions carry them up towards the surface, forming a kimberlite pipe, but not all kimberlites contain diamonds. The highest quality diamonds are more likely to be found in kimberlite deposits centred directly over the keel.[^21] Aside from the rare occurrence of diamonds from meteor impacts, pretty much 100% of the world's diamonds come from cratons.[^27] The best known example of Archean diamonds (so far) have been found on the Kaapvaal craton in South Africa (see: [Jwaneng diamond mine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jwaneng_diamond_mine) and [Kimberley Mine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Hole)), which have been dated back to ~2.89 Ga or older.[^19] >[!caption] >![[GEUS_2002_MINEX-newsletter-22__Distribution-of-kimberlites-worldwide__tjtrewin-written-consent-to-share-online.png|Simplified (and slightly cropped) world map showing a diamond locations on every craton.]] >**Figure 3:** Simplified world map showing kimberlite deposits in relation to cratons (blue areas). Red dots indicate barren kimberlites (likely no diamonds, or very few), brown dots indicate diamond bearing (fertile) kimberlites (though not necessarily of the best quality, or easy to mine), yellow dots indicate minor primary kimberlite deposits (smaller, thinner, or less continuous deposits) and blue dots indicate major primary kimberlite deposits (larger and more continuous deposits). >Artwork: GEUS, MINEX newsletter 22 (March 2002)[^20], shared with written permission. >[!caption] >![[Udachnaya_pipe__wikimedia-commons_CC-BY-SA.jpg|View taken from a helicopter of a colossal open-pit diamond mine that looks like a crater, with steep cut sides stepping inwards. Massive excavators look miniscule, and can only be seen by zooming in on the full sized image.]] >Udachnaya pipe, an open-pit diamond mine located on the Siberian craton. >From Stapanov Alexander via Wikimedia Commons under the [CC-BY-SA 3.0 license](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en). ### Other valuable ores & minerals While not exclusive to cratons, bountiful ores and minerals can be found on cratons (and not just Archean age ones) such as: gold, platinum, silver, iron, copper, nickel, lead, and sometimes corundum. Cratons produce over 90% of the world’s gold and platinum![^27] >[!caption] >![[Mole_++_2013__Yilgarn-Craton-ore-deposits__CC-BY.jpg|Map of the Yilgarn craton in Western Australia, showing nickel deposits (red stars), gold deposits (yellow squares), and iron deposits (green pentagons).]] >**Figure 4:** Map of the Archean Yilgarn Craton in Western Australia showing the locations of nickel, gold, and iron deposits. >From Mole et al. (2013)[^24] under the [CC-BY 3.0 License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). A study of late Neoarchean rocks in the Maniitsoq region of Greenland found rare occurrences of gem-quality corundum (bearing **rubies** and **sapphires**), with samples dating back to 2.5 Ga. Their research concluded that the corundum was formed during the final amalgamation of the North Atlantic Craton occurring at 2.7 Ga.[^23] >[!note] Worldbuilding considerations >Given the relation between cratons and high value minerals and ores, what kind of resources might be present in areas like this in your world? What level of technology (or magic) do inhabitants use to extract these and put them to use? > >How would the discovery of these resources affect the closest populations (either economically, or ecologically)? Who has a particular interest in acquiring these materials, and for what purpose? > >Are there other influences involved in the formation of minerals, such as magic or otherworldly forces? Perhaps some materials are more common than others in your world - or maybe there are entirely new elements that don't exist on Earth! ## How supercratons were formed Ok so the bit about features was fun and simple but, from this part onwards, things get complicated and confusing with contradicting, conflicting conclusions on cratons, continents and the correlations between them. >[!warning] Things that are still being debated: >- The type of tectonics that came before plate tectonics. >- Which mode of tectonics cratons formed in. >- Exactly what defines a supercraton. >- How many original supercratons there were. >- How many cratons have been lost to time through tectonic forces. >- Which of today's cratons belonged to said supercratons. >- How today's cratons moved in tectonic reconstructions. >- Which was the first supercontinent. >- Overlapping and similar names for the early supercontinents. Generally speaking, it's thought that pre-1.8 Ga was the time of craton (and supercraton) formation, and post-1.8 Ga was the time of supercontinent formation.[^11][^25] >[!caption] >![[Cawood_++_2022__tectonic-mode-evolution__CC-BY-4.0.jpg|Diagram showing the theorised evolution of tectonic modes from the magma ocean of Proto-Earth >4.4 Ga (bottom) to the modern plate tectonics <0.8 Ga seen today (top).]] >**Figure 5:** Theorised evolution of tectonic modes, starting from the Proto-Earth magma ocean at the bottom of the diagram, upwards through to the modern plate tectonics observed today. >From Cawood et al. (2022)[^25] under the [CC-BY 4.0 Licence](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). #### First crustal formation As the molten surface of newly-formed Earth cooled to form a stagnant early mafic proto-crust (mafic is the same composition as oceanic crust today), the degassing from heat-pipes during this process created an initial atmosphere of steam, which cooled for several millions of years to form the first water-based ocean. During this time, new minerals and early signs of life emerged and mantle convection caused areas of mafic crust to drip melt back down into the lithosphere, which were reworked into regions of felsic crust (like today's continental crust).[^25] #### Early cratons and continental crust Early cratons begin to form and the tectonic mode shifted from a stagnant-lid with heat pipes into a squishy-lid mode (yes that's its real name)[^26]. This started early rifting and drip subduction, with the drips forming future greenstone belts and the the dome bits in between forming granitic gneiss. The cratonic lithosphere stabilised and thickened, causing widespread emergence of continental crust and an increased rate of crustal recycling.[^25] >[!warning] Here's where things get a lot messier with conflicting theories. ## Craton "clans" and supercratons There are several different (and sometimes conflicting) craton "clans" that define groups of present day cratons based on a likely shared ancestral supercraton[^1][^6] as identified by matching mafic dyke swarms, paleomagnetic data, glacial deposits, and other samples:[^14][^13] 1. **Superia supercraton** - Consisting of the Superior, Hearne, Kola-Karelia cratons (and the later the Wyoming craton, which joined by the end of the Archean).[^15][^16] - Likely formed around ~2.65 - 3 Ga. - Estimated to have been about the size of modern-day Antarctica.[^16] - Likely initiated break-up at ~2.45 Ga[^1] before a final break up around ~2.17 Ga.[^13] 2. **Sclavia supercraton** - Consisting of the Slave, and Dharwar cratons, though some sources also include the Zimbabwe, and Wyoming craton in this group.[^15] - Likely formed around ~3.5 Ga.[^15] - Broke apart at ~2.85 Ga, splitting into the Wyoming and Slave cratons.[^1][^14][^15] 3. **Vaalbara supercraton** - Consisting of the Kaapvaal, Pilbara, and Grunehogna cratons. - Likely formed ~3.1 Ga.[^9] - Remained apparently stable for ~1000 - 400 Ma.[^9] - Fragmented possibly sometime between ~2.7-2.1 Ga.[^9] 4. **Zimgarn supercraton** - Consisting of the Zimbabwe and Yilgarn cratons. As you can see, there's a few conflicting overlaps depending on different proposals, with some cratons even switching clans at different stages of time. Frost and Mueller (2024) plainly state that "\[similar] geologic history alone is not sufficient to classify cratons into clans", pointing out that with multiple combinations for different supercraton proposals going around, these similarities aren't proof, they're just suggestions.[^15] Since falling down a worldbuilding rabbit hole into researching paleotectonic reconstruction, I've frequently seen the term *supercraton* used interchangeably with *supercontinent* when the size or composition of a theoretical landmass is uncertain,[^6][^9][^10] oh and also *megacontinent*, too.[^11] Hawkesworth et al (2024) points out that, given the currently limited data available, "It is difficult to establish whether any of these warrant the term supercontinent".[^8] >[!note] Worldbuilding considerations >What theories do the bright minds of inhabitants in your world have about their home planet? How are opposing schools of thought regarded among different people, and what were their first reactions to ground-breaking new theories? > >If you want to include this level of detail, have fun with the names of these landmasses! Are their names based on their present day locations and features, or were they named after something else like deities or mythical beings? ### The super confusing role of supercratons in the supercontinent cycle There are three different scenarios that speculate the history of Earth's cratons during Archean times,[^1][^3] though often just the first two are discussed: 1. **Supercontinent solution: (debated)** - Fig. 6a A widely held opinion from Williams et al (1991) is that all cratons were once part of a single late Archean supercontinent known as "Kenorland",[^1] consisting of the Archean cratons of North America, the Baltics, and Siberia.[^13] 2. **Supercratons solution: (likely)** - Fig. 6b Bleeker (2003) suggests it's more likely that the Slave, Superior, and Kaapvaal cratons originated instead from independent *supercratons* (Sclavia, Superia, and Vaalbara, respectively), each of which had distinct formation and break-up histories.[^1] Gumsley et al. (2017) further supports the proposal that the Kaapval and Pilbara cratons were parts of a much larger supercraton.[^6][^5] Liu et al. (2021) also supports the supercraton solution with data from a more recently identified paleomagnetic pole, and also notes that there are glacial deposits found on all of Superia's cratons, yet none of the same on Sclavia - which indicate the existence of "at least two distinct and spatially separated supercratonic landmasses across the Archean-Proterozoic transition."[^3] 3. **Numerous supercratons solution: (unlikely)** - *(Not pictured)* An Archean Earth with *numerous* supercratons and smaller landmasses (like other unconnected cratons and micro-continents)[^16] is highly unlikely because there would have had to have been a significantly larger amount of Archean continental crust at that time to have survived ~2.5 Ga of erosion, fragmentation, and crustal recycling, compared to the remaining parts that are preserved today.[^1] Furthermore, the small size of Archean supercratons likely weren't big enough for the required degree of underlying mantle convection, meaning they might not have ever merged into a supercontinent.[^16] >[!caption] >![[Liu-et-al_2021__supercontinent-solution-vs-supercratons-solution__CC-BY_licence.png|Arrangement of cratons on globes. The top two globes show (A) Supercontinent solution. The bottom two globes show (B) Supercratons solution.]] >**Figure 6:** Paleogeographic solutions for the Archean-Proterozoic transition. >Diagram depicting the comparison of craton positions and their poles at 2.62 Ga and at 2.41 Ga. (A) Supercontinent solution shows that the configuration of the poles (colour coded by age) has changed over time, resulting in a change in craton arrangement that form into one large supercontinent. B: Supercratons solution shows the poles (colour coded by supercraton affinity) keeping their configuration over time, resulting in the cratons moving uniformly and remaining as two separate supercraton groups that will later collide to form a megacontinent or supercontinent. >From Liu et al (2021)[^3] under the [CC-BY 4.0 licence](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Bleeker (2003) rules out the supercontinent solution explaining that because the Archean Earth was much hotter, it likely had stronger mantle convection that was "more likely to have favoured smaller, transient, continental aggregations in the form of several independent supercratons rather than a single large \[supercontinent]."[^1] #### Megacontinents Wang et al (2021) demonstrated that the past three supercontinent formations were each preceded ~200 Myr by the assembly of a megacontinent (Fig. 7), and the pattern suggests that the the supercontinent cycle began with (at least one) supercraton, which formed into the megacontinent Nuna then into a large megacontinent, and then finally into a supercontinent.[^12] >[!caption] >![[From Wang et al (2021) The role of megacontinents in the supercontinent cycle. CC-BY.png|Chart spanning from 3000 Ma to present day, comparing levels of magmatic activity to the presence of megacontinents and supercontinents.]] >**Figure 7:** *"Correspondence between megacontinents and orogenic magmatism."* >From Wang et al (2021) under the CC-BY licence.[^12] Wang et al (2021) sets the bar straight on the mix of using Nuna/Columbia as a supercontinent name, stating that Nuna is the precursor megacontinent to Columbia. Nuna consists of: Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia, and assembled by 1.8 Ga (Fig. 8).[^12] >[!caption] >![[Wang_++_2021__megacontinents__CC-BY-4.0.png|Diagram of four globes showing megacontinents with a timeline from left to right: Nuna (1750 Ma), Umkondia (1110 Ma), Gondwana (520 Ma), and Eurasia (0 Ma). Blue horizontal bars above with the timelines of supercontinents: Columbia, Rodinia, Pangea, and the future Amasia.]] >**Figure 8:** Megacontinents through time. (Top) Timeline of megacontinents and associated supercontinents. (Bottom) Megacontinent reconstructions at age of final assembly (Eurasia at present day). EQ - equator. >From Wang et al (2021)[^12] under the [CC-BY 4.0 license](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). >[!note] Worldbuilding considerations >If you're following a [[GPlates Worldbuilding Tutorial|GPlates worldbuilding tutorial]], consider the option of starting further back in time with 1-2 supercratons, or adding craton clusters or an Archean "nuclei" to note which parts of your cratons are the oldest. ## Conclusion Given the difficulty of reconstructing tectonic history from billions of years ago when less than 3% of the Earth's crust today formed in the Archean eon[^7][^15], it's no wonder the definition is up for debate. I didn't expect to be moved reading a geology paper, but Frost and Mueller (2024)'s metaphor got me good: >"Studying Earth’s oldest rocks can be like trying to learn one’s family history by consulting the oldest living relative with a failing memory: some facts may be reliable, but others are difficult to untangle and place in correct chronological order and geographic location, some reminiscences may be misleading, and for some significant events, there may be no recollection at all."[^15] 😬 As Mitchell et al (2021) concludes: "Acquiring more high-quality, well-dated palaeomagnetic poles across the Archaean–Proterozoic transition from multiple cratons offers the hope of definitively testing an Archean supercontinent versus the supercratons hypothesis."[^16] --- ## Resources Additional resources & reading to check out: - List of proposed paleocontinents throughout Earth's history https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleocontinents - (Video) 5 Times Supercontinents Caused Major Diversification & Devastation of Life - GEO GIRL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p70PXiqhmgE - (Video) Mapping Earth, billions of years ago - Howtown https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1hOdm0RJlY - (Video) How do continents form: The Wyoming craton example - UTD GEOSCIENCE STUDIO https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LuUNHx19jPA - (Video) History of the Earth (timelapse from 4.5 Ga to today) - Algol https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1OreyX0-fw - An overview of [[Craton|cratons]] https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/craton - (Video) Diamond Mining - Inside the Largest Mine in the World - Free Doc Bites https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3IDnEOUIWM >[!info]- Bibliography >Additional uncited material researched for this topic (not included in the references below). >- Gumsley AP, Chamberlain KR, Bleeker W, Söderlund U, De Kock MO, Larsson ER, Bekker A. Timing and tempo of the Great Oxidation Event. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2017 Feb 21;114(8):1811-6. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1608824114 >- Wan B, Yang X, Tian X, Yuan H, Kirscher U, Mitchell RN. Seismological evidence for the earliest global subduction network at 2 Ga ago. Science Advances. 2020 Aug 5;6(32):eabc5491. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc5491 >- Eriksson PG, Altermann W, Catuneanu O, Van der Merwe R, Bumby AJ. Major influences on the evolution of the 2.67–2.1 Ga Transvaal basin, Kaapvaal craton. Sedimentary Geology. 2001 Jun 1;141:205-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(01)00075-6 >- Adolfsson M. Visualizing the volcanic history of the Kaapvaal Craton using ArcGIS. Dissertations in Geology at Lund University, No. 385, 28 pp. 15 hp (15 ECTS credits). https://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/search/publication/4459805 >- Nimis P, Grütter HS, Nestola F. Multistage diamond formation, mantle uplift and changing geothermal regimes recorded by inclusions in Kimberley diamonds. Mineralogy and Petrology. 2025 Apr 23:1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00710-025-00908-2 >- Peng P, Virtual Seminars in Precambrian Geology. The Paleoproterozoic: Legend and legacy of plume magmatism (LIPs). YouTube. May 15, 2025. Accessed June 28, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GR3RnoiqyS8 >- Spencer CJ, Murphy JB, Kirkland CL, Liu Y, Mitchell RN. A Palaeoproterozoic tectono-magmatic lull as a potential trigger for the supercontinent cycle. Nature Geoscience. 2018 Feb;11(2):97-101. Accessed June 27, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-017-0051-y >- Ernst R, Bleeker W. Large igneous provinces (LIPs), giant dyke swarms, and mantle plumes: significance for breakup events within Canada and adjacent regions from 2.5 Ga to the Present. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 2010 May;47(5):695-739. Accessed June 26, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1139/E10-025 >- Li ZX, Zhang SB, Zheng YF, Su K, Zhang L. Linking the paleoproterozoic tectono-magmatic lull to the Archean supercratons: geochemical insights from paleoproterozoic rocks in the North China craton. Precambrian Research. 2024 May 1;404:107326. Accessed June 28, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2024.107326 >- Liu J, Palin RM, Mitchell RN, Liu Z, Zhang J, Li Z, Cheng C, Zhang H. Archaean multi-stage magmatic underplating drove formation of continental nuclei in the North China Craton. Nature Communications. 2024 Jul 24;15(1):6231. Accessed June 29, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-50435-5 ## References Titles in **bold are open/free access** at time of access. ==Highlighted== titles are ones I enjoyed reading the most and/or learnt the most from. [^1]: Bleeker W. ==The late Archean record: a puzzle in ca. 35 pieces==. Lithos. 2003 Dec 1;71(2-4):99-134. Accessed June 26, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2003.07.003 [^2]: [^3]: Liu Y, Mitchell RN, Li ZX, Kirscher U, Pisarevsky SA, Wang C. **=Archean geodynamics: Ephemeral supercontinents or long-lived supercratons=**. Geology. 2021 Jul 1;49(7):794-8. Accessed June 27, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1130/G48575.1 [^4]: [^5]: Salminen J, Oliveira EP, Piispa EJ, Smirnov AV, Trindade RI. **Revisiting the paleomagnetism of the Neoarchean Uauá mafic dyke swarm, Brazil: Implications for Archean supercratons**. Precambrian Research. 2019 Aug 1;329:108-23. Accessed June 27, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2018.12.001 [^6]: Gumsley A. **Validating the existence of the supercraton Vaalbara in the Mesoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic**. \[doctoral dissertation]. Lund, Sweden. Lund University; 2017. Accessed June 27, 2025. Available at: https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/f793a8c6-7c99-40f2-980b-4e66ed0fe5dc [^7]: Frost C, Mueller P, Mogk D, Frost B, Henry D. **Creating continents: Archean cratons tell the story**. GSA Today. 2023 Jan;33(1). Accessed June 28, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG541A.1 [^8]: Hawkesworth C, Cawood PA, Dhuime B, Kemp T. **Tectonic processes and the evolution of the continental crust**. Journal of the Geological Society. 2024 Jul 1;181(4):jgs2024-027. Accessed June 28, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2024-027 [^9]: Zegers, Wit D, Dann. Vaalbara, Earth’s oldest assembled continent? A combined structural, geochronological, and palaeomagnetic test. Terra Nova. 1998 Sep;10(5):250-9. Accessed June 28, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3121.1998.00199.x [^10]: Artemieva IM, Mooney WD. On the relations between cratonic lithosphere thickness, plate motions, and basal drag. Tectonophysics. 2002 Nov 14;358(1-4):211-31. 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